INTRODUCTION:

In regions of the Global South experiencing rapid urbanisation—such as India—urban homelessness has emerged as an increasingly pressing social issue (see Hayder et al., 2017, for similar trends in the Global North). This phenomenon is characterised by an intricate interplay of economic, social and structural forces contributing to persistent poverty and social exclusion cycles. Recent studies have underscored that urban homelessness in India is not merely a socio-economic concern; however, it is also profoundly shaped by the swift pace of urbanisation and inadequate social safety nets (Singh and Sharma, 2023). It is, indeed, a multifaceted issue. In the specific context of Madurai, homelessness entails more than just the absence of shelter; it encompasses erosion of familial bonds, unavailability of adequate healthcare and exclusion from more conventional economic systems (Kumar, 2023; Nawaz et al., 2023). The situation in Madurai illuminates broader socio-cultural ramifications, wherein individuals confront a profound sense of disconnection from their communities and support structures. This stands in stark contrast to the traditional representation of homelessness, which simplistically equates it with a lack of housing.

The city of Madurai (renowned for its historical and religious significance) has gradually metamorphosed into a paradoxical sphere where sacred traditions coexist with pronounced urban destitution. The homeless populace frequently congregates near public spaces and temples; thus, they establish themselves within a marginalised urban landscape, frequently as slum dwellers (Juliet et al., 2012) or street vendors (Shweta Sharma, 2018). However, it remains visible (Mohan and Ali, 2022). By scrutinising socio-economic conditions that contribute to homelessness, the health vulnerabilities these individuals face and coping strategies they adopt in the face of adversity, this study aims to dissect intricate realities that confront them. Underlining this, a recent article underscores how urban planning in India often neglects the needs of vulnerable populations, including Rickshaw pullers who migrate to urban areas to eke out, thus further complicating the plight of the homeless (Ramesh, 2023; Laiq et al., 2020). This research situates homelessness within the broader context of urbanisation and structural inequality: it significantly contributes to understanding how cities in the Global South can inadvertently exacerbate vulnerability.

The complexities of homelessness require careful examination due to the interplay of various factors that can lead to unforeseen consequences. This investigation employs ethnographic methodology to explore how individuals experiencing homelessness navigate challenges such as securing food, accessing healthcare, and maintaining social relationships. A key inquiry is: "What are the fundamental causes of homelessness in Madurai?" It examines how structural factors like poverty and the lack of social safety nets exacerbate the conditions faced by these individuals. Additionally, the study looks at the coping strategies of homeless individuals and how societal perceptions influence their experiences.

The findings highlight persistent structural barriers and the remarkable resilience of those affected, emphasising the need for comprehensive solutions tailored to diverse needs. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing effective strategies to address the multifaceted nature of homelessness.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE:

Although socio-cultural nuances inherent in regions (such as India) remain largely underexplored, homelessness has garnered considerable attention in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres of the globe. The absence of stable residence often serves as a central focus of conventional definitions of homelessness; however, this perspective fails to encompass broader dimensions of social disconnection and exclusion (Rossi, 1989). According to Burt (1992), Banerjee (2014), Bhattacharya et al. (2023), and Ahsan Abdullah (2016), scholars have placed significant emphasis on the crucial role that structural factors play in perpetuating homelessness. These factors include economic inequality, urbanisation, and insufficient welfare policies, which have caught the attention of even novelists who talk about the plight of poor women in urban areas (Debiprasad et al., 2022). This situation is not merely the result of individual shortcomings; instead, it reflects systemic deficiencies that warrant comprehensive examination.

The extensive framework encompassing urban poverty and migration in India is intricately linked to pervasive issues surrounding homelessness throughout the country. Sharma (2012) posits that numerous individuals are propelled into homelessness as a consequence of the dearth of affordable housing and insufficient employment prospects in urban locales, with many of them being forced into begging (Jabir et al., 2013). Additionally, the caste system—compounded by gender disparities—adds further layers of intricacy to this dilemma, disproportionately impacting marginalised demographics, including widows, orphans and the elderly. Banerjee (2014) contends that although governmental initiatives have been instituted to address urban poverty, they frequently prove inadequate because of ineffective execution and lack of concentrated attention on homeless populace. Recent investigations, notably those conducted by Gupta and Choudhary (2022), illuminate the inadequacies of these policies in addressing the unique requirements of homeless individuals; however, challenges remain unabated.

The existing literature consistently scrutinises health disparities that are endemic to the homeless demographic. Individuals confronted with homelessness experience augmented susceptibility to chronic ailments, psychological distress and substance dependence disorders (Fitzpatrick et al., 2012). Recent inquiries (Kumar and Singh, 2023) illuminate the reality that these health conditions are frequently exacerbated by living circumstances and constrained access to essential healthcare services. Studies have indicated that homeless populations—however—are routinely marginalised from structured healthcare systems, primarily because of the stigma associated with homelessness, bureaucratic impediments and inadequate service provisions. This exclusion not only perpetuates a cycle of declining health and poverty but also further entrenches their marginalisation, thereby sustaining this pernicious cycle.

The scholarly discourse also investigates the social dimensions of homelessness (with a particular emphasis on the deficiency of social capital and communal connections) that individuals experiencing homelessness encounter. The homeless are not merely physically displaced; however, they are also subjected to social and political marginalisation. Wacquant (2008) argues that urban marginality engenders a unique form of social invisibility. Moreover, recent findings by Patel and Roy (2023) reaffirm that the stigmatisation of homelessness perpetuates their exclusion, thereby reinforcing the perception of homeless individuals as abnormal or unworthy of societal support. This study aims to provide an ethnographic account of homelessness in Madurai, emphasising lived experiences, health vulnerabilities and social dynamics that characterise their existence. This research builds upon insights previously articulated for its endeavours to illuminate the complexities of their reality (although there remain challenges in fully capturing the breadth of these experiences).

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:

Two theoretical perspectives (interrelated) serve as the basis for this research: structural violence and urban marginality. The intricate interaction between socioeconomic exclusion, systemic inequality, and individual agency can be comprehended through the prism of these frameworks. However, this offers a distinctive lens through which to scrutinise this interaction because it emphasises the subtleties involved. Although the frameworks are separate, they enhance each other (and this interplay can unveil more profound insights into matters at hand).

ASSAULTS ON THE STRUCTURES:

The concept of structural violence, articulated by Johan Galtung and refined by scholars like Paul Farmer (2003), refers to systematic mechanisms within social structures that harm individuals. Unlike overt violence, structural violence is embedded in institutions and policies, leading to inequitable access to resources such as healthcare and opportunities. While not always visible, its effects are profound, perpetuating inequality and suffering in society.

In Madurai, inadequate housing policies and insufficient healthcare for impoverished populations illustrate structural violence. Individuals experiencing homelessness are systematically denied access to essential resources for survival (Dreze and Sen, 2020). This situation highlights the urgent need for systemic change, which requires understanding the structures that perpetuate inequality to formulate effective interventions.

The interplay of caste, gender, and economic status further exacerbates challenges related to structural violence. Widowed, elderly, or disabled individuals often face multiple layers of discrimination that hinder their escape from homelessness. Narratives from this study reveal subtle and pervasive mechanisms of structural violence that significantly influence the life trajectories of homeless individuals, often unnoticed by society (Kumar, 2021). Recognising these intersecting factors is essential for addressing the underlying issues effectively.

The marginalisation of urban areas

As discussed by Loïc Wacquant (2008), the concept of urban marginality explores how advanced marginality in urban areas leads to socio-spatial exclusion. Cities become arenas where inequality is reinforced through the spatial segregation of marginalised groups. In Madurai, for example, the homeless occupy a liminal space—physically present but socially invisible. This situation highlights how public spaces transform into survival sites rather than places of belonging, reflecting broader societal neglect (Patel and Choudhury, 2022).

The spatial concentration of homeless individuals in areas like temple precincts and railway stations emphasises their marginalisation. While these spaces provide temporary shelter and access to resources, they also expose the homeless to heightened surveillance and violence. This dynamic reveals the complexities of their existence, navigating visibility and invisibility within the urban landscape (Rai and Sood, 2023). A comprehensive understanding of homelessness in Madurai requires focusing on structural factors that perpetuate exclusion and inequality, beyond individualistic explanations.

THE METHODOLOGY:

To attain a comprehensive understanding of the experiences faced by homeless individuals in Madurai, this inquiry employs a qualitative (and ethnographic) framework. The research seeks to elucidate personal, social and structural determinants that contribute to homelessness, focusing on the lived realities of this marginalised cohort (whose members grapple with homelessness). Ethnography enables an in-depth exploration of the intricate struggles, survival strategies and coping mechanisms utilised by the homeless populace. These dimensions, however, often elude quantitative approaches, thus rendering insights derived particularly significant. Although the emphasis rests on individual experiences, it remains essential to recognise broader societal ramifications underpinning these realities (because they reflect systemic challenges).

Methods of Data Collection and Sampling:

Eighty-two homeless individuals were selected for semi-structured interviews in Madurai to ensure a diverse sample representing various socioeconomic backgrounds, age groups, genders, and health conditions. This diversity allowed the study to capture a wide range of experiences and challenges faced by the homeless. Data collection involved direct observation, participant interviews, and case studies, with researchers spending time in living environments such as temples, railway stations, and marketplaces. Participant observation was particularly helpful in understanding survival strategies, documenting living conditions, public interactions, and coping mechanisms. However, each individual's experience varied significantly, revealing rich data alongside notable gaps, underscoring the need for further research.

It is essential to recognise that the complexities faced by the homeless population cannot be fully understood within a limited timeframe. While the findings are valuable, they should be approached with caution, as they reflect a specific geographic and cultural context. This emphasises the need for further research to enhance our understanding of homelessness in diverse settings. The study faced limitations, particularly in accessing certain areas and individuals. Although it provides insights, deeper inquiry is necessary to address the complexities of homelessness that extend beyond this work alone.

Semi-structured interviews allowed for flexible discussions with individuals experiencing homelessness, enabling them to share their personal stories, challenges, and aspirations. The interviews covered various aspects of their lives, including the causes of homelessness, daily routines, health issues, relationships, and societal perceptions. Case studies further enriched the exploration of unique experiences, revealing the intricate realities of homelessness beyond general trends. Each narrative carries nuances that reflect the diversity of human experience and resilience.

Given the vulnerability of participants, ethical considerations were crucial. Informed consent was obtained to ensure participants understood the study's objectives and their rights to confidentiality. Researchers implemented measures to prevent potential harm and recognised participants as active agents in their own stories. This approach emphasised dignity and care in navigating the ethical complexities of conducting research in sensitive contexts.

DATA ANALYSIS:

The data, gathered through interviews and observations, underwent thematic analysis from a grounded theory perspective. This approach allowed researchers to identify recurring themes and patterns, exploring individual experiences within broader socio-economic, political, and cultural contexts. The coding process unfolded in stages: initial codes were generated through open coding and later consolidated into broader themes. Although researchers gained deeper insights, the analysis was iterative, with continuous refinement of themes, highlighting the dynamic nature of qualitative research for nuanced interpretations of complex social phenomena.

FINDINGS:

The research on homelessness in Madurai illuminates the intricate realities that the homeless population must contend with (drawing attention to the intersections of economic, social and structural factors). In this section, a comprehensive narrative of these findings is unveiled. These findings are categorised under several pivotal themes (economic precarity, health vulnerabilities, social alienation, coping strategies and interactions with the larger society). Homelessness in Madurai manifests not only as a state of physical displacement but also as a multifaceted condition rooted in systemic inequalities. Each of these themes reveals how homelessness unfolds in Mumbai (notably, precarious economic conditions and structural displacement—SDP).

It is conceivable (that) the most captivating discovery lies in the precarious financial predicament faced by the homeless population of Madurai. A considerable number of individuals participating in the study—over seventy per cent—indicated that the primary reason for their homelessness stemmed from inadequate financial conditions. However, the findings imply that homelessness cannot merely be comprehended through the lens of personal financial failure; instead, it is intricately connected to broader socio-economic frameworks that influence opportunities and resource access. This is due to the fact that homelessness serves as a manifestation of the interrelatedness of these structures.

Homelessness has been exacerbated in Madurai due to both urban development and an increasing demand for land. Several participants recounted how they were compelled to leave previous residences, either because of evictions executed by the government or private actors, or due to the prohibitively high costs of housing. Frequently, these individuals found themselves residing in informal settlements on the outskirts of the city or within conditions that were in a state of disrepair. When these areas were redeveloped for commercial or infrastructure purposes, they discovered that they could not find a source of shelter or a viable alternative. This type of displacement—often termed "structural displacement"—illuminates the broader forces of urbanisation that impact the lives of those experiencing homelessness. However, it is important to recognise that these challenges are not merely local phenomena but reflect global trends that shape urban landscapes.

Prior to becoming homeless, a substantial number of individuals (who were interviewed) had held jobs that were low-paying and required minimal skills. Meagre incomes were generated by jobs like street vending, pulling rickshaws and casual labour; however, these earnings proved inadequate for sustaining a stable life in the city. Homelessness often stems from the loss of these positions due to illness, old age, or accidents. Consequently, the findings highlight a significant structural issue: a deficiency of stable, high-paying employment opportunities for urban poor. Furthermore, individuals find themselves vulnerable to economic shocks and, ultimately, homelessness because of the state's inability to provide sufficient social safety nets (such as unemployment benefits or affordable housing options). This makes it abundantly clear that homelessness in Madurai is not merely an outcome of individual decisions; rather, it is a direct consequence of the absence of supportive welfare policies and the economic system's overall failure. Concerns regarding health and obstacles to receiving medical care persist.

The second significant finding pertains to health vulnerabilities evident within the homeless population (Ntsebo et al., 2022). During the research process, it was uncovered that homelessness is intertwined with a multitude of issues related to both physical and mental health. In the month preceding the study, over half of the participants (55.3%) indicated having encountered chronic health problems. Among the most frequently reported ailments were malnutrition, respiratory issues, skin infections and fever. Homeless individuals are often exposed to severe weather conditions, pollutants and inadequate sanitation; all of these factors contribute considerably to the decline of their health. The physical environment in which they reside plays a crucial role in this context. People who sleep in public areas—such as near temples, train stations, or marketplaces—are often subjected to conditions that are not merely overcrowded but also perilous to their well-being. This exposure intensifies their susceptibility to infections and respiratory diseases but also renders them more vulnerable to communicable diseases. This worsened during the COVID-19 times (Radhika K P, Bhuvaneshwari D. 2022)

A notable prevalence of mental health issues exists among the homeless population (in addition to various physical ailments that persist). A significant number of participants reported anxiety, depression and trauma; these conditions were often linked to experiences of social exclusion, abandonment by families and prolonged stress exposure. Clear indications emerged from many narratives indicating that living without stable shelter, social support and adequate healthcare significantly impacted their mental health. High rates of substance abuse were documented within the homeless community, serving both as coping mechanisms and escapes from harsh realities. This finding was particularly troubling. A significant proportion of respondents disclosed using alcohol or drugs (including ganja or betel leaves) to numb the pain and stress of daily struggles; this proportion was around 10% of the total pool of respondents.

Experiencing difficulty in accessing healthcare services emerged as a notable revelation. Numerous individuals (particularly those who are homeless) in Madurai expressed their dissatisfaction with the public healthcare system. They found it not only challenging to navigate (due to lengthy waiting times) but also inadequate in offering treatment that is both affordable and sufficient. The social stigma surrounding homelessness exacerbated this issue. Furthermore, some individuals reported being treated with contempt or neglect by healthcare professionals; this behaviour significantly contributed to their social marginalisation. Consequently, many chose to avoid formal healthcare settings altogether (this decision often led them to self-medicate at local pharmacies or seek informal care from non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and religious institutions). However, these alternatives were frequently inconsistent and lacked the capacity to adequately address the complex health needs of the homeless population. Disconnection from society (along with severed familial ties) only intensified their plight.

Based on the findings of this study, the notion of social alienation emerged as a significant revelation. A primary cause of homelessness was identified (by more than fifty per cent of respondents) as the abandonment or abuse of a family member. The importance of the role that families play in providing individuals with shelter, security and support is underscored by this development. The breakdown of familial relationships was a significant factor in the current living situations of many homeless individuals in Madurai. A considerable number of participants reported they had become estranged from their families for various reasons, including addiction, severe financial strain, or conflict within the family unit. In certain instances, individuals were left without a caregiver following the death of a spouse or parent, with their children or other family members refusing to provide this care for them. On many occasions, this abandonment was compounded by feelings of guilt, shame and emotional trauma. This resulted in a substantial number of individuals withdrawing from society and seeking refuge in public spaces.

Owing to the stigma (which is intrinsically linked) with homelessness, social alienation was further exacerbated. Participants reported that the general public held opinions that they were "dirty," "lazy," or "undeserving." As a result of this social stigma, it became difficult for people experiencing homelessness to cultivate meaningful relationships or to integrate into society. Individuals who found themselves homeless often felt a profound sense of invisibility, because the more prominent community either ignored or marginalised them. This was the case in numerous instances. Furthermore, this social exclusion was not confined to interactions with those who were not homeless; even within the community of homeless individuals, relationships were frequently fragile and marked by distrust. Many individuals who experienced homelessness were reluctant to form close bonds with one another, although they lived in close proximity. This reluctance stemmed from fears of exploitation or competition for limited resources (such as food and money). The use of drugs, spirituality and philosophical resilience serve as coping strategies; however, these methods often only provide temporary relief.

In Madurai, individuals experiencing homelessness employed various coping strategies that showcased their resilience and adaptability. A notable finding was that some individuals viewed their homelessness as part of a spiritual or philosophical journey, finding a sense of "freedom" or "penance." This perspective, held by about 10-15% of respondents, allowed them to confront their situation with acceptance and peace.

In contrast, many participants turned to drugs, such as alcohol and cannabis, as a coping mechanism. While this offered temporary relief from hunger, pain, and social isolation, it also led to increased health issues and social alienation due to dependency.

Spirituality was a significant coping strategy for around 72% of respondents who engaged in religious activities like temple visits and prayer. These practices provided hope and a sense of purpose, helping them navigate the psychological effects of homelessness.

Interactions between the homeless and the non-homeless population were marked by ambivalence. Some individuals faced hostility or indifference, while others offered support through donations or services. Negative stereotypes often skewed public perceptions, making it harder for the homeless to gain assistance.

Despite these challenges, some homeless individuals formed connections with non-homeless community members, particularly around temples and markets, where they received food and clothing. However, these interactions were often brief and transactional, highlighting the stigma and exclusion that still permeate the larger society.

DISCUSSION:

This study offers a multifaceted view of homelessness in Madurai, highlighting the economic, social, and structural factors that contribute to the marginalisation of homeless individuals. By employing theories of structural violence, urban marginality, and social exclusion, the discussion contextualises these findings within the broader sociological literature. It examines the interplay between individual agency and systemic structures, underscoring the importance of understanding the experiences of those without homes. While economic factors and structural violence are interconnected, recognising these dynamics is vital for effective solutions.

Emphasising the importance of perceiving homelessness not simply as an individual failing (although many might think so) but rather as a result of larger structural forces is the reality that the homeless population in Madurai faces significant economic precarity. Findings reveal that a vast majority of homeless individuals in Madurai were not just passive victims of circumstance; instead, they were shaped by the inequalities inherent in the system and the processes linked to urban development (Ghosh, 2022). Structural displacement, particularly as urban regions expanded and informal settlements were dismantled to accommodate commercial or infrastructure projects, created the economic insecurity many respondents experienced. This situation aligns with Galtung's (1969) theory of structural violence, which highlights how social structures inflict harm on individuals by restricting their access to resources, rights, and opportunities. However, this understanding calls for a more nuanced approach to addressing homelessness, because it challenges the notion that homeless individuals are solely responsible for their plight (Sengupta and Mukherjee, 2023).

The destruction (of informal settlements) and the lack of affordable housing—as well as restricted access to social welfare systems—are all examples of structural violence that exacerbate homelessness in (the) context of Madurai. However, this situation is particularly dire (because) it highlights the systemic issues that perpetuate inequality. Although there are initiatives aimed at alleviating these problems, they often fall short, partly (but) due to insufficient resources and political will (Krishna, 2021).

To fully comprehend the experiences (of) the homeless population in Madurai, one must consider the concept of economic marginalisation. Research findings indicate that a significant number of individuals interviewed had been engaged in jobs that were both unstable and low-paying prior to their homelessness. Such jobs—(which) encompass rickshaw pulling, street vending, and domestic labour—offer little in terms of financial security and remain susceptible to fluctuations in demand and income (Bhan and Jana, 2023). In situations where individuals cannot access these forms of employment (because of) illness, ageing, or physical disability, they find themselves devoid of the financial resources necessary to secure housing, healthcare, or other essential needs. This leads to a heightened state of economic vulnerability; they are unable to cope with the immediate shocks that precipitate homelessness. Although some may have expected support from family members, the reality is that many lack stable income or financial backing, making their situation even more precarious.

The inability of welfare systems to provide adequate assistance (to those who are on the margins of society) is a factor that exacerbates the precarious economic situation that exists today. Despite numerous government and non-government initiatives aimed at alleviating poverty and providing assistance to the homeless, these programs frequently fail to reach the most vulnerable individuals (because of inefficiencies in the bureaucracy, corruption, and a lack of resources) (Sharma and Singh, 2023). There is a significant exclusion of the homeless population from the formal economy in Madurai—this is also the case in many other urban centres in India. Furthermore, state welfare mechanisms do not provide sufficient support for this population. The findings of this study highlight the critical need for comprehensive social safety nets, which include access to affordable housing, healthcare, and unemployment benefits; however, mitigating the structural factors contributing to homelessness remains a challenge. Concerns regarding health and the availability of medical care are paramount (Patel, 2022).

A deeper layer of systemic inequality is illuminated by the health vulnerabilities encountered by homeless individuals in Madurai. According to findings, a significant number of people (who are homeless) experience persistent health issues, such as respiratory problems, skin infections, malnutrition, and mental health disorders. The physical environment in which the homeless reside—frequently characterised by exposure to pollutants, extreme weather conditions, and unsanitary spaces—exacerbates their health conditions. This situation aligns with the urban marginality framework proposed by Wacquant (2008); it emphasises that marginalised populations in urban areas are often confined to areas with limited access to essential services and resources (like healthcare). In the Indian context, studies such as the one by Das et al. (2021) highlight how urbanisation patterns contribute to health disparities among marginalised groups (Das, M., and Chatterjee, C., 2021. Urbanization and Health Inequality: A Study of Selected Urban Areas in India. *Journal of Urban Affairs*, 43(2), 223-240). However, the implications of this framework extend beyond mere observation. Because these individuals face compounded health challenges, addressing their needs requires a multifaceted approach. Although the situation appears dire, there exists potential for systemic change that could alleviate these inequities.

Numerous homeless individuals (in Madurai) encounter considerable barriers when attempting to access healthcare; they also grapple with various difficulties regarding their physical health. According to the findings, participants often avoided formal healthcare settings—primarily because of the protracted wait times, the social stigma surrounding these facilities, and the insufficient assistance they received. Instead, many people relied on self-medication from local pharmacies or informal healthcare providers (who were often ill-equipped to meet the intricate health needs of the homeless population). This situation underscores a fundamental flaw in the healthcare system: the inability to offer marginalised groups healthcare that is accessible, affordable, and adequate. In a study by Gupta and Shah (2022), it was noted that increased urbanisation has led to a rise in morbidity rates among the homeless due to barriers to accessing formal healthcare services (Gupta et al., A. (2022). However, this issue persists, posing challenges for individuals and society.

The findings underscore the challenges that homeless individuals encounter regarding mental health. Because of their lack of stable shelter, social support, and access to healthcare, homeless people often endure chronic stress, anxiety, and depression. It is common for social alienation (and exclusion) to worsen mental health issues; this, in turn, leads to heightened feelings of isolation and vulnerability. Substance abuse—an often-employed coping mechanism for these mental health struggles—becomes increasingly complex due to the health issues that homeless individuals face. The prevalence of substance abuse among the homeless population in Madurai highlights the necessity of offering comprehensive healthcare services that address not only physical health but also mental health, addiction, and psychosocial well-being. A study by Joshi et al. (2023) emphasises the urgent need for integrated care approaches that consider both mental health and substance abuse treatment (Joshi et al., K. (2023). Integrated Interventions for Mental Health and Substance Use in Urban Slums of India. *BMC Public Health*, 23, 1012). However, solutions must be multifaceted, as the interplay between these factors is intricate.

Health disparities serve as a reflection of a system (which) marginalises the homeless and denies them access to resources necessary for maintaining health and well-being. This system operates within the context of structural violence. A clear example exists regarding how institutional structures (like healthcare systems) contribute to the exclusion and suffering of marginalised populations. One such instance is the significant lack of access to healthcare that homeless individuals experience. To address these disparities, healthcare systems must be reformed to provide targeted support for individuals who are homeless. This support should encompass mobile health clinics, mental health services, and treatment programs for substance abuse. A recent article by Kumar and Singh (2023) calls for policy interventions that integrate mobile health services with local community support systems to enhance accessibility for the homeless in urban areas (Kumar et al., P. (2023). Policy Innovations for Enhancing Health Access among the Homeless Population: A Case Study from India. *Health Policy and Planning*, 38(2), 150-159). Exclusion from society and the disintegration of family ties are critical factors in this ongoing crisis.

Another critical finding that underscores the social dimensions of homelessness (in Madurai) is the disintegration of familial bonds and social isolation faced by homeless individuals. According to the study's findings, a significant number of those experiencing homelessness have distanced themselves from their families—this occurs due to factors such as addiction, financial struggles, or domestic violence. Respondents articulated how they were left without support (because) their spouses, children, or extended family members either died or declined to assist them. Family abandonment was often mentioned as a primary factor contributing to homelessness. Although the sociological perspective views homelessness as a social issue, it is shaped by individual circumstances and broader social dynamics (such as family structures, kinship networks, and societal expectations). This finding bolsters the sociological interpretation of homelessness, highlighting its complexity. A recent study by Menon et al. (2023) also examines the impact of social networks on the well-being of the homeless, emphasising the need to rebuild familial ties as part of rehabilitation efforts (Menon et al., R. (2023). Family Dynamics and Wellbeing among the Homeless: Strategies for Rebuilding Kinship Ties. *Asian Social Work and Policy Review*, 17(1), 89-103).

Understanding social exclusion is essential for comprehending the experiences of homeless individuals in Madurai. Silver (1994) states that social exclusion occurs when individuals (or groups) are marginalised or pushed out of mainstream society. This process can result from poverty, discrimination, or the disintegration of social relationships. The homeless population in Madurai exemplifies this exclusion, often being labelled as "undeserving" or "deviant" by the broader community. Such labels serve as a prime example of the marginalisation they face. Additionally, the public's perception of homelessness—often framed as a moral failure or laziness—contributes to the social alienation experienced by these individuals. Consequently, it becomes increasingly challenging for homeless individuals to reintegrate into society or seek support from family or community networks. Negative stereotypes perpetuate this cycle of exclusion; however, breaking this cycle is crucial for fostering inclusion and understanding.

In Madurai, the homeless community often forms supportive relationships despite facing widespread alienation. These connections provide essential companionship, protection, and shared resources, serving as crucial emotional and practical support. However, these relationships are fragile, influenced by the same exclusion and distrust encountered by those not experiencing homelessness.

This highlights the need for community-based interventions to reintegrate homeless individuals into society, especially given the disintegration of familial ties and social alienation. While some may struggle to return to family, fostering new social networks is vital for reducing feelings of isolation. Public campaigns can also help challenge stereotypes and reduce social stigma, encouraging greater inclusion.

Coping mechanisms among the homeless reveal varied approaches to adversity. Some individuals exhibit philosophical resilience, viewing their situation as part of a life journey and maintaining dignity through their beliefs. However, many resort to substance use—such as alcohol and drugs—to cope with pain and stress, which further exacerbates health and social exclusion. Therefore, interventions must address substance abuse as a critical barrier to recovery and reintegration.

Spirituality plays a significant role in helping many homeless individuals confront their challenges. Approximately 72% of respondents engage in religious activities, which provide hope, meaning, and connection. Religious networks offer emotional and practical support—such as food and shelter—acting as a crucial mechanism for resilience. This underscores the importance of multi-sectoral approaches, integrating efforts from both government and faith-based organisations to effectively support the homeless population.

CONCLUSION:

Situated within the broader socio-economic and structural frameworks of urban marginality (and structural violence), the findings of this study offer a nuanced understanding of the lived realities of homelessness in Madurai. This understanding situates homelessness in the context of metropolitan marginality. The narratives of participants have revealed that homelessness in Madurai is not a fixed or unchanging condition; rather, it represents a dynamic and multifaceted experience shaped by various intersecting factors: economic displacement, health disparities, social alienation and systemic neglect. However, it is essential to consider these elements together because they collectively inform the complexities of this issue. Although the situation may appear dire, it is crucial to recognise the resilience of those affected.

This study emphasises the urgent need for multi-faceted policy responses that address the root causes of homelessness. These root causes include (but are not limited to) economic inequality, inadequate social safety nets and systemic exclusion from healthcare and housing. It encourages a change in the way that society views people who are homeless; however, this also fosters greater empathy and increased inclusion. It is possible for policymakers and practitioners to work towards the creation of a more just and inclusive urban society (although) they must acknowledge the homeless as active agents in their own lives and address structural barriers that they face.

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Received on 09.11.2024 Revised on 26.11.2024

Accepted on 11.12.2024 Published on 18.12.2024

Available online on December 27, 2024

Int. J. of Reviews and Res. in Social Sci. 2024; 12(4):269-278.

DOI: 10.52711/2454-2687.2024.00045

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